e. instrumental-reactive aggression theory, According to more recent research by Anderson and Bushman, aggression ranging from instrumental to reactive should be viewed Organisms are able to maintain relatively constant internal conditions that may differ from the external environment. After each toss, all who tossed tailsabout half those still standinghad to sit down. Webe. The point is not that the world is necessarily simple, any more than the world is necessarily filled only with frequently occurring or nonmysterious things. unintentional aggression. Then NASAs Donald Bogard compared the meteorites fingerprint of noble gases to those found on Mars by the Viking landerand discovered that they matched closely. It takes the same form as the fallacy of affirming the consequent, but the two are easy to distinguish; an explanatory argument, unlike the deductive fallacy, depends not only on form, but also on the total evidence, for logical support. Taken from the DEAR ABBY column by Abigail Van Buren. Find three images of sound in the poem and three instances of silence. d. Aggression facilitates performance only in team-sport athletes. To return to an earlier case, no lesser a light than Thomas Jefferson, when he heard the reports of meteorites from Harvard and Brown professors, said, I would rather believe that the Yankee professors lied than that stones fall from the heavens. This was probably reasonable as an initial reactionthough, in this case, the high standards were eventually met. Who was the first person referred to as a psychologist? Why does the speaker emphasize silence? Psychoanalytic theory focuses on ________ and early childhood experiences. We do not have to establish the correct explanation to establish that the argument is a bad one. It describes why the individual is having problems. A general explanation that makes sense will typically lend itself to observable outcomes that can be graphed smoothly; and the simpler theory is more likely to eventually be buttressed by an adequate conceptual framework. b. when participants are embarrassed Sample exercise. Senator Claiborne Pell (D-RI), wrote an alarmed letter to the secretary of defense; he had discovered the word simone (pronounced si-MO-nee) in the secretarys taped speeches, as well as in the speeches of the secretary of state and of the presidentwhen the speeches were played backwards. Personal Finance Semester 1 Test - Mrs. Ellio, John Lund, Paul S. Vickery, P. Scott Corbett, Todd Pfannestiel, Volker Janssen, The Language of Composition: Reading, Writing, Rhetoric, Lawrence Scanlon, Renee H. Shea, Robin Dissin Aufses, Eric Hinderaker, James A. Henretta, Rebecca Edwards, Robert O. Self. Applying Newtons laws to these data, he boldly made the following prediction: A comet with an orbit similar to the 1530 and 1606 comets will appear in December 1758. I would be following the same strategy if I introduced you to a student of mine and declared that she had special coin-tossing skill, proven by the fact that she has just now, on demand, tossed heads five times in a row. WebThe explanatory hypothesis is the heart of the case formulation. It fails the test mentioned in the preceding section, since we already have an explanation for the outcomenamely, the normal operation of gravity. Two Alternative Explanations to Bear in Mind. Young women purchase fewer meats than women who are 35 years of age or older. If an explanation does already exist, then the outcome has a high prior probability and the argument is logically weak. causation. The researchers suggest that the ticket-happy cops may simply be suffering from loss of sleep, which has been shown to increase irritability and aggressiveness. By sheer coincidence, a few of these thousands of dreams are going to seem to come true, and these are the ones that will stick most vividly in my memory (remember the vividness shortcut from Chapter 1). MIUs architect had said only that the decision to pour concrete was based on the construction schedule and the availability of certain materials. Want to create or adapt books like this? First American psychologist. When faced with the dead body and the candlestick bearing the butlers fingerprints, even if there were no evidence pointing toward the chambermaid, an alternative explanation might have been this: The butler and the chambermaid committed the murder together, but only the chambermaid was wearing gloves. Real estate investment trusts (REITs) experienced a record level of profitability in 2004 Soles MUST: A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted among a set of scholars; a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested. They want to show how tough they are. Sample answer. Its a bit inconvenientI have to walk almost two miles there and backbut its worth it. 1 Definitions In this instrument: chronic renal failure means: (a) having a glomerular filtration rate of less than 15 mL/min/1.73 m 2 for a period of at least 3 months; or (b) a need for renal replacement therapy (dialysis or transplantation) for treatment of complications of decreased glomerular filtration rate 6) Evolutionary adaptation leading to descent with modification over time. As improbable as the Holocaust explanation ismercifully, such evils happen so seldom that its prior probability is quite lowthe hoax explanation is vanishingly probable. Which of the following shows the correct order for a scientific explanation? He said he came home to discover a well-used pipe in the pocket of his bathrobe. Is the if-clause intended to provide a better causal understanding of the then-clause? A theory with great explanatory power makes few assumptions, has significant predictive power and helps to reduce uncertainty in a precise and accurate way. The second premise states that the observable outcome has happenedthat it has been observed. Sample exercise. Delayed on the way west in 1846, 87 pioneers were stranded in late October by heavy snows in the Sierra. (The Vitamin C example is similar; one reason that researchers have not worked harder at collecting evidence for the theory is because it is unclear how it would work. An hours sleuthing eliminated the plants inventory, machinery, welding operations, painting procedures and conveyor system as possible sources of the dent. WebA hypothesis is a potential answer to the question, one that can somehow be tested. Pete McG. Because the ideas of creationism cannot be tested through experiment and observation. It makes no statement with respect to causation. He decided to study the environmental impact of this herbicide on blue jay reproduction. Which of the following psychologists was a behaviorist? OK, so shes not admitting to anything, but the next day when I went to get the pipe, it wasnt where I had put it! Conduct a critical experiment. That should prove to you that it is running low. When it did come true, it was often counted as reason to believe that the oracle had special powers. Here is one of the classic exchanges:[4], Dear Abby: Im a traveling man whos on the road five days a week. It makes no statement with respect to causation. Null hypothesis : this is known as the default hypothesis.It states that General explanationan explanation that can apply to a wide range of observable outcomes. Also termed a theory or an explanatory hypothesis. Record the facts. A second way of distinguishing among explanatory arguments is in their level of generality. Explanatory arguments are probably the most fundamental and frequently used of all arguments, both in science and in everyday life. For the explanatory arguments below, (i)identify the explanation, and (ii)consider its prior probability from the point of view of the makes-sense testpaying special attention to the alternative explanations. The magazine reporting it is reliable, and there is no reason to distrust it in this case. 1 Definitions In this instrument: chronic renal failure means: (a) having a glomerular filtration rate of less than 15 mL/min/1.73 m 2 for a period of at least 3 months; or (b) a need for renal replacement therapy (dialysis or transplantation) for treatment of complications of decreased glomerular filtration rate B. Our natural tendency to look for outcomes that support our preferred explanation rather than those that might also falsify the alternatives. d. college students studying counseling a. For a fullerand fascinatingaccount of Halleys reasoning, see Ronald Giere. The best we can do is look at frequencies; and research shows that the vast majority of money managers turn in performances that are no better than chance. Also termed the data, the prediction, or the facts. The explanation must, at a minimum, be falsifiable. A pathway by which we can come to discover and better understand our world. But it is highly probable, whether my theory is true or false, that the reviews will be good or bad or somewhere in between. WebQuestion: Which of the following is an explanatory hypothesis? Confirmation biasour natural tendency to look for outcomes that support our preferred explanation rather than those that might also falsify the alternatives. Wilson Bryan Key, whose most famous book was titled Subliminal Seduction, has argued that Madison Avenue strategically permeates its advertisements with camouflaged sexual images that are invisible unless you look very hard for them. B. He was a man with some amount of self-importance and a certain air of command. You note a fuzzy growth on some of the gels in your incubator. Instrumental aggression is aggression occurring. Immediately penalize spectators for aggressive acts. Young women purchase fewer meats than women who are 35 years of age or older. The proposed explanation for a phenomenon is BEST described as: Which of the following questions CANNOT be answered by the scientific method? Concrete, according to the campus architect, was poured whenever the schedule required and the necessary materials were available. Which of the following would be classified as an aggressive act? e. a and c, In the case study of head football coach Tom Martinez, Coach Martinez dealt with the area of aggressive play by \end{bmatrix} I offer the observable outcome that I walk around on the ground while I wear the shoes. The leading alternative explanation is that the manager has succeeded by sheer luck. For a solution to be termed a scientific hypothesis, it has to be an idea that can be supported or refuted through carefully crafted experimentation or observation. Muluple Choice Young women purchase fewer meats than women who are 35 years of age or older. One method that is commonly used in this process is to compare the effects of a drug to that of a neutral placebo in double-blind tests. Further, it is not necessary for the prior probability of the explanation to be high; if the explanation were already highly probable, there would be no need for the argument! Develop an action plan. d. all of the above Introspection refers to a process by which someone examines ________ as objectively as possible. Which of the following have shown the strongest relationship? In 1695, Edmund Halley began to ponder whether Newtons account of celestial mechanics was correct and, in particular, whether it applied to the motion of comets. A steady, respectable, middle-aged man, too, on the face of himall facts which led me to believe that he had been a sergeant. Wonderful! I ejaculated. In short, coincidence has not been ruled out, so we cannot judge this to be a logically strong argument. If so, then it probably has a low prior probability. If the prior probability of the explanation is extremely low and coincidence has not been ruled out as an alternative explanation, judge the logic of the argument to be weak. . An experiment that makes it possible to determine decisively between alternative hypotheses. b. First American psychologist. Two kinds of theories have been proposed. b. frustration-aggression theory General explanations are typical of science, though are not restricted to it. Suppose I have heard that vitamin C prevents colds; I dont know whether to believe it but decide its worth looking into. Improved outcome: An image looking like the outline of the Virgin Mary was seen on the wall of a house, and it remained there when the window of the neighboring house was opened. I presume: 1. Which system accumulates the costs for each department or process within the factory? c. They are affected by team (group) pressures. General explanationssuch as Newtonian mechanics applies to the motion of celestial bodies or Vitamin C helps prevent coldsdo not lend themselves to the question about comparative frequencies because they are general. People in the South tend to rate the President more favorably than do people in the North Real estate investment trusts (REITs) experienced a record level of profitability in 2004. It includes the presumption of causation. 1) A complex, ordered organization consisting of one or more cells. Muluple Choice Young women purchase fewer meats than women who are 35 years of age or older. As with determining the improbability of the outcome, there is no formula for determining the probability of the explanation. a. 16. And chivalry didnt make the difference, the researchers say, since women got no more food than men. Treatment: in a research study, any condition applied to subjects - those in the treatment group - that is not applied to subjects in a control group. b. At the time, I heard that 15 seconds into a 30-second burn both transmission channels died simultaneously, says Hughes. Newtons theories, for example, while applied here to Halleys comet, actually cover the motion of all objects at all times. This hypothesis is not necessarily the right explanation. WebExploratory research: Definition. Which of the following describes this pill? e. b and d, According to research, which of the following statements concerning spectator aggression is (are) true? Which occurs more frequentlyburglars or butterfingers? A century after Darwins visit, his countryman David Lack came here to study the tiny, drab birds that had helped inspire the theory of evolution. He had a maritime tattoo, a military carriage, regulation side-whiskers, and an air of command. The scolding and praise are no better than a fifth wheel in the argument, since the outcome is highly probable anyway. WebApplying your knowledge of the scientific method, which of the following BEST explains the correct contrast between a hypothesis and theory? A hypothesis is a tentative explanation . This can be a useful standard, but remember that surprise is a psychological conditionthus, strictly speaking, it is an indicator of low subjective, rather than epistemic, probability. Explanation: Competition promotes specialization, but so would food differences; so if competition were the main cause then I wouldnt expect to find food differences. b. I think it might be haunted. Do you agree or disagree with the statement that "interest groups are evidence of political freedom"? The independent variable is manipulated to cause-effect on the dependent variable and the dependent variable is measured to examine the effect d. a and b . Why would you try to persuade your friend of something you have both just agreed is true? All of these. 0&1 A general, fact-based understanding of the basics of biology and other sciences, the scientific method, and the social, political, and legal implications of scientific information. a. Just as a good explanatory argument rules out coincidence, it also rules out deception. Scientists have suspected a whole host of culprits: acid rain, pesticides, stocking of exotic fish, changes in water temperature, or just a natural cycle. For general explanations, a good way to check for simplicity is to ask whether the explanation predicts the smoothest possible curve.In the 17th century, the Italian mathematician Torricelli hypothesized that the Earth was surrounded by a sea of air, which decreased in pressure uniformly as the altitude increased. What is the MOST IMPORTANT flaw in this investigation? In some cases, it can be tempting to accept an explanation with an extremely low prior probability simply because you cannot think of any plausible alternative. Together, choices B and C combine to describe what is meant by the phrase "hierarchical organization of life.". ], There are extremes in beak sizes on Galapagos finches, there is no relevant difference in food from island to island, and in conditions, What prehistoric culture created the huge and magnificent likeness of George Bernard Shaw that is topographically sculpted on the southern tip of an island in the Leaf River in northern Quebec? Abbys argument remains moderately strong. From what Ive told you, what conclusions would you draw? Ideally, the explanation contains a cohesive and cogent understanding of the origins of the problems, the conditions that perpetuate them, the obstacles interfering with their solution, and the resources available to address them. This represents the major premise of which theory? Dear Pete: Sorry, no help from this corner for a plumber who cant keep track of his pipes. For any explanation you can ask whether it makes sensethat is, whether there is an adequate conceptual framework to account for the causal mechanisms required by the explanation. For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. And, finally, you can ask if the explanation is sufficiently simple. c. reactive versus hostile But how can the mere belief that one is doomed be fatal? It is just an explanation, designed to make the unexpected experience easier to understand. e. a and c, The peer conflict resolution program developed to help resolve conflicts in a nonviolent way uses ________ as mediators in resolving student conflicts. a. It is an argument. (If necessary, review Section 4.4.4.4.4.4.) More subtle examples are easy to find. An explanationalso termed a theory or an explanatory hypothesisis, for our purposes, loosely defined as a statement that enables us both to predict and to better understand the cause of that which it explains. Clearly an army doctor, then. e. neglectful. , For years, scientifically trained observers dismissed voodoo death as primitive superstition. Ensure adequate facilities and space. D. It excludes the presumption of Which theorist published research related to the psychology of personality? The line on the chart, I argue, does pass through the six plotted points but otherwise zigzags wildly, say, as follows. Unlike the case of Halleys comet, the observable outcomesa blue anchor on his hand, a military carriage, regulation side-whiskers, an air of commandare where the reasoning begins. Admit it. Men were exposed more frequently to the elements, since they did the hunting and tree cutting. Penelope studies how the structure and function of the nervous system is related to behavior. Answer: 16: d. frustration Cognitive psychology focuses on studying ________. d. as an inverted-U In scientific thinking, which of the following are not subject to revision? This is an example of. Life is organized on many levels within individual organisms, including atoms, cells, tissues, and organs. The observable outcome follows from this explanation just as well as it does from the explanation that it was merely the butler who did it, but the simpler butler explanation has a higher prior probability. Working-class individuals are more often involved in aggressive spectator actions. Groups are kept as similar as possible and are treated identically, except for the variable of interest. Which of the following exemplifies the empirical method? For example, we can ask about the frequency of singular explanationshow frequently butlers leave their fingerprints on candlesticks or how frequently marines have tattoosbut it isnt helpful, probably not even meaningful, to ask about the frequency with which Newtonian mechanics is true. Before making any judgment about the outcome, you should determine these two things: But sometimes the more probable explanation does not occur to uswe need more imagination or, perhaps, a better education. You should be a bit more suspicious of explanatory arguments in which the observable outcome preceded the explanationbut for psychological, not logical, reasons. The characteristics of an experimental system subject to change; for example, time (the duration of treatment) or specific elements of the treatment, such as the substance or procedure administered or the temperature at which it takes place. With total restriction of fluids, death follows in 24 hours. B. There are still people who, remarkably, claim that all of the evidence for the Holocaust is better explained as a hoax. Why does this fall short of qualifying as an example of the scientific method? . Which of the following exemplifies the unconditional positive regard component of client-centered therapy? 1& 0\\ Newsweek, Sample answer. If there is good reason to expect it anyway, then the explanation is doing no work and receives no logical support. Step 5. For singular explanationssuch as The butler did it or This man was a Marine sergeantthe best question to ask is this: Is this sort of thing known to occur, and does it occur more frequently than do the leading alternatives? They took me off all of them and since then Ive had no attacks. a. how to be rough and tough without getting thrown out of the game. Singular explanationan explanation that is designed to apply only to a single thing or event. And it is highly probable that we will have any observation at all. Any unfalsifiable explanation is in principle unable to satisfy the improbable-outcome criterion and can never be the conclusion of a sound explanatory argument. Why would a scientist choose to state their hypothesis as a null hypothesis? Several other terms account for roughly the same thing. c. Hypotheses usually are relatively narrow in scope; theories have broad explanatory power. Researchers found that during a three-year period, the percentage of tickets, compared to simple warnings, was considerably higher during the night shift: more than 71 percent of the drivers stopped at night got tickets, compared with 58 percent of those stopped during the day (the others got warnings). Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which is not clearly defined. Gilbert Harman is associated with the phrase. Rather, it is to say that an argument for magic must meet high standards, and this one does not yet do so. Suppose on the camping trip your friend wonders why the water boiled so quickly, and you reply, Because we are at a higher altitude. This is not an argument. a. many coaches, parents, and teammates accept and reinforce the modeling of aggressive acts In many cases, an explanation is formulated before the observable outcome has been observed. Psychoanalytic theory focuses on ________ and early childhood experiences. ________ is a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans, proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior. The work is being done by whatever independent reason we already have for expecting the outcome to occur. Weban explanatory hypothesis for a natural phenomenon that is exceptionally well supported by empirical data. Such arguments are typical of science, though are not restricted to it. WebA hypothesis is a potential answer to the question, one that can somehow be tested. The problem in all of these cases is that the explanation does no work. But where either species lived by itself on an island, it developed a beak in between these two extremes. The survivors were the finches with beaks closest to either of the two extremesa demonstration of how competition eliminates intermediate beaks and forces each species to specialize in seeds of one size. Appetite fails, and the relatives keep water cans beyond reach, despite temperatures well above 100 degrees in the shade. Is there no other explanation of the outcome that already exists? the scientific study of mind and behavior. a. assertive behavior. According to ancient Chinese folklore, the moon reappeared after the lunar eclipse because the people made a great deal of noise, banging on pots and pans and setting off fireworks. An hypothesis is an idea that gives a tentative or temporary explanation to a phenomena. WebA hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. Lack noticed that on an island shared by two species of finches, ones beak was markedly smaller than the others. For a solution to be termed a scientific hypothesis, it has to be an idea that can be supported or refuted through carefully crafted experimentation or observation. The reduction in my colds was simply a coincidence. Examples from the text are The butler did it or The man was a Marine sergeant. We make our observations when we can and we fashion our explanations when they occur to us, and the same principles of evaluation apply regardless of which comes first. 1. Blue jay reproduction rates were measured in both habitats before and after the treatment. a. with the intent to harm physically. For each explanatory argument below, (i)identify the explanation, (ii)state whether it is the sort of thing that is known to happen, and (iii)compare its frequency to at least one alternative explanation. Living organisms are able to respond to stimulisuch as light, moisture, or another organism. C. An increase in family income leads to an increase in the percentage of income spent on housing. Applying your knowledge of the scientific method, which of the following BEST explains the correct contrast between a hypothesis and theory? An explanatory argument contends that certain facts can best be explained by a certain theory, and thus that the theory must be true. But the first one, Torricellis, has a higher prior probability because it is simpler, due to its prediction of a smoother curve. Experts are tested by Chegg as specialists in their subject area. Clearly, smoking causes cancer. All of the above are reasons for stating a null hypothesis. It assigned a central role to gravity, which is, in effect, action at a distance; but it did not offer any account of how gravitational forces can act across space without any intervening physical bodies. Wilhelm Wundt, Sigmund Freud, Noam Chomsky. MIU had practiced TM on eight nonconsecutive days, without a miss, when the preceding days forecast predicted mild or continuing mild weather. That rock just smells like Mars, says Robert Pepin of the University of Minnesota. Another is to ask whether it predicts the smoothest curve. WebThe explanatory hypothesis is the heart of the case formulation. e. Follow up. Those desperate to discredit a good explanatory argument might misuse this guideline. Writing Personal Pronouns That Agree with Antecedents. Empirical knowledge is knowledge that is based on experience and observation. But Grayson believes its unlikely such factors fully explain the statistics. C. An increase in family income leads to an increase in the percentage of income spent on housing. Influenced by the confirmation bias, you proposed a number that would confirm your preferred answer. (In the spring of 1983, the topographical feature was officially named Pointe Bernard Shaw). A process of examination and discovery of natural phenomena that involves making observations, constructing hypotheses, testing predictions, experimenting, and drawing conclusions and revising them as necessary. Is the if-clause offered as superior to alternative explanations of the then-clause? WebExploratory research: Definition. This point is not lost on investment companies. Although there is no formula for deciding on the improbability of the outcome, there are some helpful strategies that you can follow in making your decision. My wife calls mePapa Bear. To illustrate how this strategy is related to the prior epistemic probability of the outcome, suppose I propose the following fanciful explanation: I am bewitched, so that gravity has no affect on me whatsoever; the only reason I am able to walk around on the ground is because of magical shoes that counteract the bewitchment when I wear them. An increase in family income leads to an increase in the percentage of income spent on housing. It describes why the individual is having problems. There would be no good reason to expect the outcome prior to these two steps: Why is this criterion important? Women are built for giving birth, and the long haul that involves. , Scientists at the University of Manchester have discovered a distant planet where virtually no one would have expected it to be, orbiting a pulsar star, PSR1829, which was born during a supernova. B. Scott Jones, a staff member for U.S. Normally scientists can trace meteorites back to comets and asteroids, debris left over from the formation of the solar system 4.6 billion years ago. Competition for food among finches on Galapagos causes the extremes in beak sizes. If a researcher uses the same experimental setup as another study to collect data, but uses different research subjects, it is considered. This is another way of saying that, prior to making any judgment about whether the explanation is true or the outcome has been observed, there would be no good reason to expect the outcome. Are able to respond to stimulisuch as light, moisture, or another organism images... Do so concrete was based on the construction schedule and the relatives water... October by heavy snows in the Sierra will have any observation at all times that will. Well above 100 degrees in the argument, since the outcome is highly probable anyway, can! 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